The Periodic Table: chemical periodicity
This section on the Periodic Table and chemical periodicity builds on work covered in the first three chapters of this guide. In this chapter we will concentrate on Period 3 – the elements sodium to argon.
Physical properties of Period 3 elements
You need to know and be able to explain the variation of four key physical properties across the third period (sodium to argon). These are:
- atomic and ionic radius
- melting point
- electrical conductivity
- ionisation energy
Atomic and ionic radius
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of the chemical elements according to their proton numbers. The word ‘periodic’ suggests a regular recurrence of a feature. Look at the graph of atomic volume (which is linked directly to atomic radius) shown
Relationship between atomic volume and atomic number
- A pattern is apparent – the Group 1 metals occur at peaks on the graph. The other thing that is noticeable is that atoms of the Group 1 metals get larger moving down the group.
- Moving across Period 3 from left to right, the ionic radii change (Figure 9.2). To begin with, elements lose electrons to form positive ions. The increasing positive charge pulls the remaining electrons closer to the nucleus to give a smaller ionic radius.
- Beyond silicon, Si4+, the atoms form negative ions with a decreasing charge. The electrons gained fill the outer electron shell. This means that the ionic radius is much larger for phosphorus, P3−, and then decreases steadily to chlorine, Cl–.
Melting point
Period 3 contains different types of elements, from metals on the left-hand side through non-metallic solids to gases on the right-hand side. The melting points and boiling points of these elements are shown in Figure 9.3.
Melting points and boiling points of Period 3 elements
• The elements sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals and their atoms are bonded using a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. The melting (and boiling) points increase because the number of electrons each atom contributes to the ‘sea’ increases.
• Silicon is a semi-conductor with a giant covalent structure (similar to that of diamond), so it has a high melting point.
• Phosphorus is a non-metal with four atoms in its molecules. To melt it, only van der Waals’ forces have to be overcome, so phosphorus has a low melting point.
• Sulfur, another non-metal, is made up of S8 molecules. Because the molecules are big, there are stronger van der Waals’ forces between them than in phosphorus. So sulfur has a higher melting point than phosphorus.
• A chlorine molecule, Cl2, has only two atoms so the melting point is lower than that of sulfur.
• Finally, argon consists of single atoms with very weak van der Waals’ forces so argon has the lowest melting (and boiling) point in Period 3.
Electrical conductivity
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are good electrical conductors because of the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons they have. Silicon is a semi-conductor, but not as good a conductor as graphite. All the other elements are electrical insulators.
First ionisation energy
The changes in first ionisation energy across Period 3.
Changes in first ionisation energy across Period 3
There are four things that affect the size of the first ionisation energy:
• the charge on the nucleus
• the distance of the electron from the nucleus
• the number of electrons between the outer electrons and the nucleus
• whether the electron to be removed is alone or paired
Across Period 3, the charge on the nucleus increases by one unit for each element. In all cases, electrons are being removed from the third shell and these are screened by the 1s2, 2s2 and 2p6 electrons. The graph is not a straight line because of the orbitals the electrons are removed from.
The first ionisation energy of aluminium is lower than that of magnesium. This fall is because in aluminium the electron being removed is in a p-orbital and is, on average, further away from the nucleus than an electron in an s-orbital.
There is another drop between phosphorus and sulfur – this is caused by removing a paired electron in a p-orbital. The repulsion between these two electrons makes it easier to remove one of them than a single electron in a p-orbital
Chemical properties of Period 3 elements
You have to be able to recall the reactions of these elements with oxygen, chlorine and water, and to know about the reactions of any oxides and chlorides formed.
Reactions with oxygen
Element | Reaction | Product(s) | Equation |
Sodium | Burns with an orange-yellow flame to give white products | Sodium oxide and peroxide | 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O 2Na + O2 → Na2O2 |
Magnesium | Burns with a bright white flame to give a white product | Magnesium oxide | 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO |
Aluminium | Powder burns to give a white product | Aluminium oxide | 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 |
Chemical properties of Period 3 elements
You have to be able to recall the reactions of these elements with oxygen, chlorine and water, and to know about the reactions of any oxides and chlorides formed.
Reactions with oxygen
Element | Reaction | Product(s) | Equation |
Sodium | Burns with an orange-yellow flame to give white products | Sodium oxide and peroxide | 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O 2Na + O2 → Na2O2 |
Magnesium | Burns with a bright white flame to give a white product | Magnesium oxide | 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO |
Aluminium | Powder burns to give a white product | Aluminium oxide | 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 |
Silicon | Burns if heated strongly | Silicon dioxide | Si + O2 → SiO2 |
Phosphorus | Burns with a yellow flame producing clouds of white smoke | Phosphorus(III) oxide; phosphorus(V) oxide in excess O2 | P4 + 3O2 → P4O6 P4 + 5O2 → P4O10 |
Sulfur | Burns with a blue flame producing a colourless gas | Sulfur dioxide (sulfur trioxide is produced in the presence of a catalyst and excess O2) | S + O2 → SO2 |
Chlorine | Does not react directly with oxygen | ||
Argon | No reaction |
Reactions with chlorine
You may not have seen as many of the elements reacting with chlorine. The reactions are summarised
Element | Reaction | Product | Equation |
Sodium | Burns with a bright orange flame giving a white product | Sodium chloride | 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl |
Magnesium | Burns with a bright white flame giving a white product | Magnesium chloride | Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2 |
Aluminium | Burns with a yellow flame giving a pale-yellow product | Aluminium chloride | 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3 |
Silicon | Reacts when chlorine gas is passed over it to form a colourless liquid | Silicon tetrachloride | Si + 2Cl2 → SiCl4 |
Phosphorus | Burns with a yellow flame to form a mixture of chlorides | Phosphorus(III) chloride and phosphorus(V) chloride | P4 + 6Cl2 → 4PCl3 P4 + 10Cl2 → 4PCl5 |
Sulfur | Reacts when chlorine gas is passed over it to form an orange liquid | Disulfur dichloride | 2S + Cl2 → S2Cl2 |
Chlorine | No reaction | ||
Argon | No reaction |
Reactions with water
Sodium reacts violently with water, releasing hydrogen gas and dissolving to form sodium hydroxide solution:
Magnesium reacts slowly with cold water, forming magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen:
It reacts vigorously if steam is passed over the heated metal, forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen:
Oxidation numbers in oxides and chlorides
Aluminium | No reaction | ||
Silicon | No reaction | ||
Phosphorus | Phosphorus(III) oxide reacts with cold water | 1–2 | P4O6 + 6H2O → 4H3PO3 |
Phosphorus(V) oxide reacts violently | 1–2 | P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4 | |
Sulfur | Sulfur dioxide dissolves readily | 1 | SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 |
Sulfur trioxide reacts violently | 0 | SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 | |
Chlorine | Does not react directly with oxygen | ||
Argon | No reaction |
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric. This means that it reacts with both acids and alkalis. Aluminium oxide contains oxide ions, so it reacts as a base with acids, in a similar way to magnesium oxide:
It also has significantly acidic tendency, reacting with alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, to form an aluminate:
Oxidation numbers of the oxides and chlorides of Period 3 elements
• The first four elements have positive oxidation numbers that correspond to the loss of all their outer electrons (silicon can also gain four electrons in forming its hydride, SiH4 – its oxidation number is still +4).
• Elements in Groups 15, 16 and 17 can also show positive oxidation numbers in their oxides and chlorides. You may think that it is unusual for non-metals to have positive oxidation numbers, but carbon has a positive oxidation number in carbon dioxide.
Reactions of oxides with water and their acid–base behaviour
The general trend is that alkalis are formed on the left-hand side of the period, aluminium and silicon oxides are almost insoluble, and acids are formed on the right-hand side.
Oxide | Reaction | pH of solution | Equation |
Sodium | Dissolves exothermically | 14 | Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH |
Magnesium | Slight reaction | 09 | MgO + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 |
Aluminium | No reaction | ||
Silicon | No reaction | ||
Phosphorus | Phosphorus(III) oxide reacts with cold water | 1–2 | P4O6 + 6H2O → 4H3PO3 |
Phosphorus(V) oxide reacts violently | 1–2 | P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4 | |
Sulfur | Sulfur dioxide dissolves readily | 1 | SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 |
Sulfur trioxide reacts violently | 0 | SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 | |
Chlorine | Does not react directly with oxygen | ||
Argon | No reaction |
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric. This means that it reacts with both acids and alkalis. Aluminium oxide contains oxide ions, so it reacts as a base with acids, in a similar way to magnesium oxide:
It also has significantly acidic tendency, reacting with alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, to form an aluminate:
Reactions of the chlorides with water
The reactions of the chlorides of Period 3 elements with water give clues about the bonding present.
This is linked to the electronegativity of the element. the bigger the difference in electronegativity, the more polar is the bond. Sodium and chlorine have a difference of 2.1 whereas sulfur and chlorine have a difference of only 0.5.
Chloride | Bonding | Electronegativity | Reaction | Equation |
Sodium | Ionic (electrovalent) | 0.9 | Dissolves to give Na+ and Cl− ions | |
Magnesium | Ionic (electrovalent) | 1.2 | Dissolves to give Mg2+ and Cl− ions | |
Aluminium | Mainly covalent | 1.5 | Hydrolyses | AlCl3 + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + 3HCl |
Silicon | Covalent | 1.8 | Hydrolyses | SiCl4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4HCl |
Phosphorus | Covalent | 2.1 | Hydrolyses | PCl3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HCl |
Sulfur | Covalent | 2.5 | Hydrolyses | 2S2Cl2 + 2H2O → SO2 + 4HCl + 3S |
Chlorine | No reaction | 3.0 | ||
Argon | No reaction |
Bonding and electronegativity
In studying the trends in behaviour described above we need to consider the reasons for the trends. In order to make sense of these we think about the bonds being formed in the compounds and the electronegativity of the elements concerned.
As we go from left to right across the period, the bonding in both the oxides and the chlorides changes from ionic to covalent. Electronegativity increases across the period and thus the difference in electronegativity between the element and oxygen or the element and chlorine decreases.
Element | Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl |
Electronegativity | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 2.1 | 2.5 | 3.0 |
14 Comments
vpn special coupon
April 1, 2024What’s up to every body, it’s my first pay a quick
visit of this website; this blog consists of amazing and genuinely excellent material in favor
of readers.
My web blog; vpn special coupon
Obtenez vos médicaments à des prix compétitifs en un clic ici
April 1, 2024Où trouver alendronate en vente en ligne en France alendronate sans ordonnance : Les alternatives
légales
fosamax en ligne : avantages et inconvénients à considérer achat
alendronate à Marseille
fosamax en ligne : nos recommandations pour une commande réussie alendronate expédiée rapidement et discrètement
Acheter alendronate en ligne sans ordonnance
alendronate en vente avec des instructions d’utilisation claires
Acheter alendronate sans ordonnance France alendronate pharmacie au Cameroun
alendronate disponible en ligne au Luxembourg
Options d’expédition discrète pour le fosamax en Belgique
achat de somnifères alendronate Pharmacie en ligne pour acheter alendronate en Suisse
alendronate en ligne : conseils pour une livraison rapide et sécurisée fosamax en ligne :
conseils pour une livraison rapide et sécurisée
fosamax abordable et de qualité
Commandez votre alendronate en ligne en toute sécurité
alendronate prescrit sur ordonnance
acheter du alendronate en Espagne en toute légalité Meilleurs
sites pour commander fosamax en France
fosamax en Belgique sans prescription alendronate sans tracas ni formalités
Commander de la alendronate en toute confidentialité Acheter
alendronate en ligne sans prescription en France
fosamax en ligne livrée en France à votre porte Achat de fosamax en pharmacie en ligne
fosamax disponible en ligne en Belgique acheter fosamax
légalement Belgique
Tout sur l’achat de fosamax en ligne : mode d’emploi
Trouvez la bonne dose de alendronate en ligne
Ontdek hier de #1 goedkoopste online internetapotheek
April 1, 2024drospirenone te koop in Nederland zonder recept
aankoop van merknaam drospirenone Mylan drospirenone kopen voor een effectieve behandeling
kopen drospirenone in België zonder problemen
koop drospirenone in Frankrijk
yasmin kopen in Europa
drospirenone online bestellen: de slimme keuze voor moderne consumenten
Bestel drospirenone zonder recept online beschikbaar
Koop drospirenone online voor gemakkelijke toegang in Nederland yasmin online kopen in Nederland: de
slimme keuze voor gezondheid.
drospirenone zonder recept te koop in België
Betrouwbare online apotheek voor drospirenone zonder voorschrift drospirenone online kopen zonder doktersvoorschrift vereist
drospirenone zonder recept verkrijgbaar voor Nederlandse consumenten Waar yasmin zonder recept te kopen
drospirenone kopen via internet voor snelle verlichting yasmin beschikbaar online in Nederland
Bestel drospirenone online en krijg het discreet bij u thuis bezorgd
drospirenone kopen online apotheek drospirenone kopen was nog nooit
zo eenvoudig met online opties
drospirenone te koop online u kunt drospirenone zonder recept
kopen in België
drospirenone beschikbaar in een Nederlandse apotheek
drospirenone online aankoop in Delft
drospirenone zonder voorschrift hoge prijs
drospirenone zonder voorschrift nodig
Ontvang yasmin snel en eenvoudig bij u thuis in Nederland
drospirenone kopen in Amsterdam betrouwbaar
Ervaar de gemakken van online winkelen voor drospirenone in Nederland
drospirenone kopen zonder gedoe in Nederland yasmin kopen in Rotterdam zonder
gedoe
drospirenone zonder recept verkrijgbaar met discrete verzending koop yasmin in Buenos Aires
Snelle levering van yasmin zonder recept
drospirenone bestellen in Rotterdam
drospirenone bestellen in België online yasmin zonder voorschrift hoge prijs
koop yasmin online in België drospirenone op
voorraad in Rotterdam
Voordelige drospirenone aanbiedingen online
drospirenone te koop in België zonder voorschrift
drospirenone kopen zonder wachttijd
yasmin beschikbaar zonder voorschrift in Spanje
yasmin vrij verkrijgbaar in Frankrijk
Beste online bron voor drospirenone zonder voorschrift drospirenone bestellen online
drospirenone beschikbaar in apotheek in Rotterdam
Beste prijs voor yasmin in Nederland yasmin capsules online
bestellen
drospirenone met of zonder recept
drospirenone verkrijgbaar zonder recept in Spanje
koop drospirenone in Frankrijk drospirenone vrij verkrijgbaar
in Bolivia
vpn special coupon
April 1, 2024Hey there are using WordPress for your blog platform?
I’m new to the blog world but I’m trying to get started and set up my own. Do you need any
html coding knowledge to make your own blog?
Any help would be greatly appreciated!
Check out my blog: vpn special coupon
Acheter du altace en ligne avec garantie de qualité
April 3, 2024You really make it seem so easy together with your presentation but I in finding this topic to be really something which I believe I would never
understand. It seems too complicated and extremely huge
for me. I am looking forward on your subsequent put up, I’ll attempt to get the dangle of it!
colchicum verkrijgbaar in Leeuwarden - bestel vandaag nog!
April 5, 2024Howdy! Do you know if they make any plugins to help with
SEO? I’m trying to get my blog to rank for some targeted keywords
but I’m not seeing very good success. If you know of
any please share. Cheers!
vpn special coupon code 2024
April 6, 2024Great blog! Do you have any hints for aspiring writers?
I’m planning to start my own site soon but I’m a little lost on everything.
Would you propose starting with a free platform like WordPress or go for a paid option?
There are so many choices out there that I’m completely confused ..
Any ideas? Thanks!
Feel free to surf to my homepage :: vpn special coupon code 2024
vpn coupon code 2024
April 6, 2024Amazing! This blog looks just like my old one! It’s on a totally different
subject but it has pretty much the same layout and design. Great choice of colors!
Here is my web site vpn coupon code 2024
vpn coupon code 2024
April 7, 2024Hello, i think that i saw you visited my web site so i came to “return the favor”.I’m trying to find things to
enhance my web site!I suppose its ok to use some of your
ideas!!
Here is my homepage; vpn coupon code 2024
vpn special coupon code 2024
April 10, 2024Incredible! This blog looks exactly like my old one! It’s on a totally
different topic but it has pretty much the same layout and design. Excellent choice of colors!
my blog post – vpn special coupon code 2024
facebook vs eharmony to find love online
May 16, 2024Hi! This is my first visit facebook vs eharmony to find love online your blog!
We are a group of volunteers and starting a new initiative in a community in the same niche.
Your blog provided us valuable information to work on. You have
done a extraordinary job!
eharmony special coupon code 2024
May 28, 2024These are actually great ideas in regarding blogging.
You have touched some good things here. Any way keep up
wrinting.
Also visit my web site; eharmony special coupon code 2024
nordvpn special coupon code 2024
May 31, 2024Oh my goodness! Awesome article dude! Thank you so much, However I am encountering problems with
your RSS. I don’t know why I am unable to subscribe to it.
Is there anyone else having identical RSS issues?
Anyone who knows the answer can you kindly respond? Thanx!!
Here is my web blog :: nordvpn special coupon code 2024
элитные шлюхи алматы
June 10, 2024красноярск найти секс порно кострома частное проститутки из минска студентки индивидуалки москва